The most common types of domain names are hostnames that provide more memorable names to stand in for numeric IP addresses. They allow for any service to move to a different location in the topology of the Internet , which would then have a different IP address.
By allowing the use of unique alphabetical addresses instead of numeric ones, domain names allow Internet users to more easily find and communicate with web sites and other server-based services. The flexibility of the domain name system allows multiple IP addresses to be assigned to a single domain name, or multiple domain names to be assigned to a single IP address. This means that one server may have multiple roles (such as hosting multiple independent Web sites), or that one role can be spread among many servers. One IP address can also be assigned to several servers, as used in anycast and hijacked IP space.
Hostnames are restricted to the ASCII letters "a" through "z" (case-insensitive), the digits "0" through "9", and the hyphen, with some other restrictions. Registrars restrict the domains to valid hostnames, since, otherwise, they would be useless. The Internationalized domain name (IDN) system has been developed to bypass the restrictions on character allowances in hostnames, making it easier for users of non-English alphabets to use the Internet. The underscore character is frequently used to ensure that a domain name is not recognized as a hostname, for example with the use of SRV records, although some older systems, such as NetBIOS did allow it. Due to confusion and other reasons, domain names with underscores in them are sometimes used where hostnames are required.
Wednesday, January 30, 2008
WHAT IS DOMAIN NAME?
The term domain name has multiple related meanings
A name that identifies a computer or computers on the internet. These names appear as a component of a Web site's URL, e.g. wikipedia.org. This type of domain name is also called a hostname.
The product that domain name registrars provide to their customers. These names are often called registered domain names. Names used for other purposes in the Domain Name System (DNS), for example the special name which follows the @ sign in an email address, or the Top-level domain names like .com, or the names used by the Session Initiation Protocol (VoIP), or DomainKeys. They are sometimes colloquially (and incorrectly) referred to by marketers as "web addresses".
This article will primarily discuss registered domain names. See the Domain Name System article for technical discussions about general domain names and the hostname article for further information about the most common type of domain name.
A name that identifies a computer or computers on the internet. These names appear as a component of a Web site's URL, e.g. wikipedia.org. This type of domain name is also called a hostname.
The product that domain name registrars provide to their customers. These names are often called registered domain names. Names used for other purposes in the Domain Name System (DNS), for example the special name which follows the @ sign in an email address, or the Top-level domain names like .com, or the names used by the Session Initiation Protocol (VoIP), or DomainKeys. They are sometimes colloquially (and incorrectly) referred to by marketers as "web addresses".
This article will primarily discuss registered domain names. See the Domain Name System article for technical discussions about general domain names and the hostname article for further information about the most common type of domain name.
Tuesday, January 8, 2008
Public domain
Public domain comprises the body of knowledge and innovation in relation to which no person or other legal entity can establish or maintain proprietary interests within a particular legal jurisdiction. This body of information and creativity is considered to be part of a common cultural and intellectual heritage, which, in general, anyone may use or exploit, whether for commercial or non-commercial purposes. About 15 percent of all books are in the public domain, including 10 percent of all books that are still in print.
If an item is not in the public domain, it may be the result of a proprietary interest such as a copyright, patent, or other sui generis right. The extent to which members of the public may use or exploit the work is limited to the extent of the proprietary interests in the relevant legal jurisdiction. However, when the copyright, patent or other proprietary restrictions expire, the work enters the public domain and may be used by anyone for any purpose.
If an item is not in the public domain, it may be the result of a proprietary interest such as a copyright, patent, or other sui generis right. The extent to which members of the public may use or exploit the work is limited to the extent of the proprietary interests in the relevant legal jurisdiction. However, when the copyright, patent or other proprietary restrictions expire, the work enters the public domain and may be used by anyone for any purpose.
Friday, January 4, 2008
History of Eminent Domain
The first case of eminent domain in English law is called the "Dobbie Process" or the "King's Prerogative in Saltpeter Case". The English king needed saltpeter for munitions and took a saltpeter mine from a private individual. The private party sued the king and the court established the right of the sovereign to take "private property for public use" without liability for trespass but requiring payment of compensation for the taken saltpeter. When the colonies became the United States and the English Common Law was adopted as the law of the new nation, this principle was recognized. Contrary to popular belief, the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution did not establish this right in the U.S., as it was already inherent in common law. The Fifth Amendment limited the right of eminent domain by requiring that takings be for "public use" and that "just compensation" be paid for the taken property. The term eminent domain is used primarily in the States, where the term was derived in the mid-19th century from the legal treatise, De Jure Belli et Pacis, written by the Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius in 1625, who used the term dominium eminens and described the power as follows:
"... the property of subjects is under the eminent domain of the state, so that the state or he who acts for it may use and even alienate and destroy such property, not only in the case of extreme necessity, in which even private persons have a right over the property of others, but for ends of public utility, to which ends those who founded civil society must be supposed to have intended that private ends should give way. But it is to be added that when this is done the state is bound to make good the loss to those who lose their property."
However, another noted jurist, Samuel von Pufendorf, in his work, De Jure Naturae et Gentium criticized the usage of the term "eminent domain". In his analysis of the control ("potestas") of property he made a classification as follows:
(a) Control, in the proprietary sense, as of that which is one's own, he termed "dominium";
(b) Control, in the governmental or sovereign sense, as of that which belongs to others, he termed "imperium". It was his conclusion that a more accurate term for the power to take property for public use would be "imperium eminens".
Many other jurists, like Cornelius Bynkershoek and Heineccius also were of the same opinion as Puffendorf. However, Heineccius noted that though there is a difference and it is imperium that belongs to rulers, still it would be futile to condemn the term when it has been so widely accepted.
The legal principle is that all property in a jurisdiction is "owned" by the sovereign of it, and that authority to make law for that property is ultimate ownership. In a democratic nation the sovereign is the people, collectively, over all the territory of that nation. What private parties can "own" is not the land itself, but an equitable interest in title to an estate in the land or property, and it is that equitable interest to which they are entitled for compensation if the title to the estate is taken.
The term compulsory purchase, also originating in the mid-19th century, is used primarily in England and Wales (see compulsory purchase order, and other jurisdictions that follow the elements of English law. Originally, the power of eminent domain was assumed to arise from natural law as an inherent power of the sovereign. Some states (New York, Louisiana) use the term appropriation as a synonym for the exercising of eminent domain.
"... the property of subjects is under the eminent domain of the state, so that the state or he who acts for it may use and even alienate and destroy such property, not only in the case of extreme necessity, in which even private persons have a right over the property of others, but for ends of public utility, to which ends those who founded civil society must be supposed to have intended that private ends should give way. But it is to be added that when this is done the state is bound to make good the loss to those who lose their property."
However, another noted jurist, Samuel von Pufendorf, in his work, De Jure Naturae et Gentium criticized the usage of the term "eminent domain". In his analysis of the control ("potestas") of property he made a classification as follows:
(a) Control, in the proprietary sense, as of that which is one's own, he termed "dominium";
(b) Control, in the governmental or sovereign sense, as of that which belongs to others, he termed "imperium". It was his conclusion that a more accurate term for the power to take property for public use would be "imperium eminens".
Many other jurists, like Cornelius Bynkershoek and Heineccius also were of the same opinion as Puffendorf. However, Heineccius noted that though there is a difference and it is imperium that belongs to rulers, still it would be futile to condemn the term when it has been so widely accepted.
The legal principle is that all property in a jurisdiction is "owned" by the sovereign of it, and that authority to make law for that property is ultimate ownership. In a democratic nation the sovereign is the people, collectively, over all the territory of that nation. What private parties can "own" is not the land itself, but an equitable interest in title to an estate in the land or property, and it is that equitable interest to which they are entitled for compensation if the title to the estate is taken.
The term compulsory purchase, also originating in the mid-19th century, is used primarily in England and Wales (see compulsory purchase order, and other jurisdictions that follow the elements of English law. Originally, the power of eminent domain was assumed to arise from natural law as an inherent power of the sovereign. Some states (New York, Louisiana) use the term appropriation as a synonym for the exercising of eminent domain.
What is Eminent domain?
Eminent domain , compulsory purchase (United Kingdom, New Zealand, Republic of Ireland), resumption/compulsory acquisition (Australia) or expropriation (South Africa and Canada) in common law legal systems is the inherent power of the state to seize a citizen's private property, expropriate property, or rights in property, without the owner's consent. The property is taken either for government use or by delegation to third parties who will devote it to "public use." The most common uses of property taken by eminent domain are public utilities, highways, and railroads. Some states require that the government body offer to purchase the property before resorting to the use of eminent domain.
The term expropriation as used in the law of eminent domain is not to be confused with situations in which private property is seized by revolutionary governments from its former owners and confiscated without payment. It should also be differentiated from forfeiture which is an uncompensated seizure of contraband from criminals and its confiscation by the government.
The term condemnation is used to describe the act of a government exercising its power of eminent domain to transfer title to private property from its rightful owner to itself. It is not to be confused with the same term that describes a declaration that real property, generally a building, has become so dilapidated as to be legally unfit for human habitation due to its physical defects. This type of condemnation of buildings (on grounds of health and safety hazards or gross zoning violation) usually does not deprive the owners of the title to the property condemned but requires them to rectify the offending situation or have the government do it for them and bill them for the cost.
Condemnation via eminent domain indicates the government is taking the property or an interest in it, such as an easement. In most cases the only thing that remains to be decided when a condemnation action is filed is the amount of just compensation, although in some cases the right to take may be challenged by the property owner on the grounds that the attempted taking is not for a public use, or has not been authorized by the legislature, or because the condemnor has not followed the proper procedure required by law.
The exercise of eminent domain is not limited to real property. Governments may also condemn personal property, such as supplies for the military in wartime, franchises, as well as intangible property such as contracts, patents, trade secrets, and copyrights.
The term expropriation as used in the law of eminent domain is not to be confused with situations in which private property is seized by revolutionary governments from its former owners and confiscated without payment. It should also be differentiated from forfeiture which is an uncompensated seizure of contraband from criminals and its confiscation by the government.
The term condemnation is used to describe the act of a government exercising its power of eminent domain to transfer title to private property from its rightful owner to itself. It is not to be confused with the same term that describes a declaration that real property, generally a building, has become so dilapidated as to be legally unfit for human habitation due to its physical defects. This type of condemnation of buildings (on grounds of health and safety hazards or gross zoning violation) usually does not deprive the owners of the title to the property condemned but requires them to rectify the offending situation or have the government do it for them and bill them for the cost.
Condemnation via eminent domain indicates the government is taking the property or an interest in it, such as an easement. In most cases the only thing that remains to be decided when a condemnation action is filed is the amount of just compensation, although in some cases the right to take may be challenged by the property owner on the grounds that the attempted taking is not for a public use, or has not been authorized by the legislature, or because the condemnor has not followed the proper procedure required by law.
The exercise of eminent domain is not limited to real property. Governments may also condemn personal property, such as supplies for the military in wartime, franchises, as well as intangible property such as contracts, patents, trade secrets, and copyrights.
Wednesday, November 21, 2007
domain keys
DomainKeys
is an e-mail authentication system designed to verify the DNS domain of an e-mail sender and the message integrity. The DomainKeys specification has adopted aspects of Identified Internet Mail to create an enhanced protocol called DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM). This merged specification is the basis for an IETF Working Group which guided the specification toward becoming an IETF standard.
The DKIM standard was issued in May 2007. The DomainKeys draft was also issued under "historical" status at the same time.
DomainKeys is a method of e-mail authentication. Unlike some other methods, it offers almost end-to-end integrity from a signing to a verifying Mail Transfer Agent (MTA). In most cases the signing MTA acts on behalf of the sender, and the verifying MTA on behalf of the receiver. DomainKeys is specified in Historic RFC 4870, which is obsoleted by Standards Track RFC 4871, DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Signatures.
DomainKeys
The DKIM standard was issued in May 2007. The DomainKeys draft was also issued under "historical" status at the same time.
DomainKeys is a method of e-mail authentication. Unlike some other methods, it offers almost end-to-end integrity from a signing to a verifying Mail Transfer Agent (MTA). In most cases the signing MTA acts on behalf of the sender, and the verifying MTA on behalf of the receiver. DomainKeys is specified in Historic RFC 4870, which is obsoleted by Standards Track RFC 4871, DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Signatures.
DomainKeys
is independent of Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) routing aspects in that it operates on the RFC 2822 message — i.e., the transported mail data, header and body — not the SMTP envelope defined in RFC 2821.
Note that DomainKeys does not prevent abusive behavior; rather, it allows abuse to be tracked and detected more easily. This ability to prevent some forgery also has benefits for recipients of e-mail as well as senders, and "DomainKey awareness" is programmed into some e-mail software.
Since 2004, Yahoo has signed all of its outgoing e-mail with DomainKeys and is verifying all incoming mail. As of 2005, Yahoo reports that the number of DomainKeys-verified e-mail messages they receive exceeds 300 million per day.
Google also uses DomainKeys to sign e-mail messages sent from users of its Gmail service, actually going live with it about a month before Yahoo did.
How it works
Note that DomainKeys does not prevent abusive behavior; rather, it allows abuse to be tracked and detected more easily. This ability to prevent some forgery also has benefits for recipients of e-mail as well as senders, and "DomainKey awareness" is programmed into some e-mail software.
Since 2004, Yahoo has signed all of its outgoing e-mail with DomainKeys and is verifying all incoming mail. As of 2005, Yahoo reports that the number of DomainKeys-verified e-mail messages they receive exceeds 300 million per day.
Google also uses DomainKeys to sign e-mail messages sent from users of its Gmail service, actually going live with it about a month before Yahoo did.
How it works
DomainKeys adds a header named "DomainKey-Signature" that contains a digital signature of the contents of the mail message. The default parameters for the authentication mechanism are to use SHA-1 as the cryptographic hash and RSA as the public key encryption scheme, and encode the encrypted hash using Base64.
The receiving SMTP server then uses the name of the domain from which the mail originated, the string _domainkey, and a selector from the header to perform a DNS lookup. The returned data includes the domain's public key. The receiver can then decrypt the hash value in the header field and at the same time recalculate the hash value for the mail body that was received, from the point immediately following the "DomainKey-Signature:" header. If the two values match, this cryptographically proves that the mail originated at the purported domain and has not been tampered with in transit.
The receiving SMTP server then uses the name of the domain from which the mail originated, the string _domainkey, and a selector from the header to perform a DNS lookup. The returned data includes the domain's public key. The receiver can then decrypt the hash value in the header field and at the same time recalculate the hash value for the mail body that was received, from the point immediately following the "DomainKey-Signature:" header. If the two values match, this cryptographically proves that the mail originated at the purported domain and has not been tampered with in transit.
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